Historiografi
Sumber untuk sejarah Parthia dan perang melawan Romawi hanya ada sedikit dan tidak lengkap. Bangsa Parthia mengikuti tradisi Akhemenyah dan lebih menyukai historiografi lisan. Akibatnya, ketika bangsa Persia ditaklukkan, sejarah mereka banyak yang hilang. Dengan demikian sumber utama untuk periode ini berasal dari sejarawan Romawi (Tacitus, Marius Maximus, dan Justiusn) dan Yunani (Herodianosos, Kassios Dio dan Plutarkhos). Buku ketiga belas Orakel Sibyl menceritakan pengaruh Perang Romawi–Persia di Suriah sejak masa pemerintahan Gordianus III sampai dominasi provinsi oleh Odaenathus dari Palmyra. Dengan berakhirnya catatan Herodianosos, semua naratif kronologis kontemporer mengenai sejarah Romawi pun hilang, sampai munculnya naratif karya Lactantius dan Eusebius pada awal abad ke-4 M, keduanya dari sudut pandang Kristen.[204][205]Sumber utama untuk periode Sassaniyah awal tidaklah sezaman. Di antaranya yang paling penting adalah orang Agathias dan Malalas dari Yunani, Tabari dan Ferdowsi dari Persia, Agathangelos dari Armenia, dan Kronik Suryani tentang Edessa dan Arbela, sebagian besar dari mereka bersumber pada sumber-sumber Sasaniyah akhir, khususnya Khwaday-Namag. Sejarah Augustus tidak sezaman dan tidak terpercaya, namun itu merupakan sumber naratif utama bagi Severus dan Carus. Inskripsi tiga bahasa (Yunani, Parthia, dan Persia Pertangahan) Shapur merupakan sumber primer.[206][207] Akan tetapi semua itu merupakan upaya terisolasi dalam mendekati historiografi tulisan dan tidak menjelaskan banyak hal mengenai sejarah Persia, bhkan ada akhir abad ke-4 M, praktik mengukir relief batu dan menuliskan inskripsi pendek telah ditinggalkan oleh orang Sassaniyah.[208]
Untuk periode antara 353 dan 378 M, ada sumber saksi mata mengenai peristiwa utama di perbatasan timur dalam Res Gestae karya Ammianus Marcellinus. Untuk peristiwa-peristiwa selama periode antara abad ke-4 dan ke-6 M, karya-karya Sozomenus, Zosimus, Priscus, dan Zonaras adalah sangat bernilai.[209] Sumber tunggal paling penting untuk perang Persia Justinianus sampai tahun 533 M adalah Procopius. Penerusnya Agathias dan Menander Protector juga memberikan banyak rincian penting. Theophylact Simocatta adalah sumber utama untuk masa pemerintahan Mauricius,[210] sedangkan Theophanes, Chronicon Paschale dan puisi-puisi karya George dari Pisidia adalah sumber yang berguna untuk masa akhir perang Romawi–Persia. Selain sumber Bizantium, dua sejarawan Armenia, Sebeos dan Movses, ikut berkontibusi dalam menceritakan naratif perang Heraclius dan oleh Howard-Johnston disebut sebagai "sumber non-Muslim terpenting yang masih tersisa".[211]
Pelecehan yang dilakukan terhadap kaisar Romawi, Valerianus, oleh raja Parthia, Shapur, (Hans Holbein the Younger, 1521, pena dan tinta hitam pada sketsa kapur, Kunstmuseum Basel)
Catatan kaki
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 1
- ^ a b Ball (2000), 12–13
- ^ Dignas–Winter (2007), 9 (PDF)
- ^ Plutarkhos, Sulla, 5. 3–6
Mackay (2004), 149 - ^ Sherwin-White (1994), 262
- ^ Bivar (1993), 46
Sherwin-White (1994), 262–263 - ^ Sherwin-White (1994), 264
- ^ Plutarkhos, Crassus, 23–32
Mackay (2004), 150 - ^ Bivar (1993), 56
- ^ Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII.4
Bivar (1993), 56–57 - ^ Bivar (1993), 57
- ^ Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII.4
- ^ Plutarkhos, Antonius, [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarkhos/Lives/Antony*.html 33–34
- ^ Bivar (1993), 57–58
- ^ Kassios Dio, Sejarah Romawi, XLIX, 27–33
* Bivar (1993), 58–65 - ^ Sicker (2000), 162
- ^ Sicker (2000), 162–163
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, XII.50–51
- ^ Sicker (2000), 163
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, XV.27–29
- ^ Rawlinson (2007), 286–287
- ^ Sicker (2000), 167
- ^ Kassios Dio, Roman History, LXVIII, 33
- ^ Sicker (2000), 167–168
- ^ Lightfoot (1990), 115: "Trajan succeeded in acquiring territory in these lands with a view to annexation, something which had not seriously been attempted before ... Although Hadrian abandoned all of Trajan's conquests ... the trend was not to be reversed. Further wars of annexation followed under Lucius Verus and Septimius Severus."
- ^ Sicker (2000), 167–168
- ^ Sicker (2000), 169
- ^ Herodianosus, Sejarah Romawi, III, 9.1–12
- ^ Campbell (2005), 6–7
- ^ Rawlinson (2007), 337–338
- ^ Herodianosus, Sejarah Roamwi, IV, 10.1–15.9
- ^ Campbell (2005), 20
- ^ Herodianos, Sejarah Romawi, VI, 2.1–6
- ^ Kassios Dio, Sejarah Romawi, LXXX, 4.1–2
- ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 16
- ^ Herodianos, Sejarah Romawi, VI, 5.1–6
- ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 24–28
- ^ Frye (1993), 124
- ^ Frye (1993), 124–125
- ^ Southern (2001), 234–235
- ^ Frye (1993), 125
- ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 27.7–8
- ^ Orakel Sybil, XIII, 13–20
- ^ Frye (1993), 125
- ^ Southern (2001), 235
- ^ Frye (1993), 125
- ^ Southern (2001), 235–236
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 5
- ^ Orakel Sybil, XIII, 155–171
- ^ Frye (1993), 126
- ^ Southern (2001), 238
- ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 38.2–4
- ^ Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 18.1
- ^ Frye (1993), 128
- ^ Southern (2001), 241
- ^ a b Frye (1993), 130
- ^ Southern (2001), 242
- ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39.33–36
- ^ Eutropius, Ikhtiar Sejarah Romawi, IX, 24–25.1
- ^ Frye (1993), 130–131
- ^ Southern (2001), 243
- ^ Frye (1993), 137
- ^ Frye (1993), 138
- ^ Bury (1923), XIV.1
- ^ Frye (1993), 145
- ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51
- ^ Procopius, Perang, I.7.1–2
- ^ Greatrex&ndash
- ^ Lieu (2002), II, 62
- ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XLIII
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62
- ^ Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, VII, 3–4
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 63
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I I, 69–71
- ^ Procopius, Wars, I.9.24
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77
- ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XC
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 74
- ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XCIII–XCIV
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77
- ^ Procopius, Perang, I.11.23–30
- ^ Greatrex (2005), 487
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 81–82
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 82
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 84
- ^ Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, IX, 2
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 83, 86
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 85
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 92–96
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 93
- ^ Evans (2000), 118
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 96–97
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 102
- ^ H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum", Chiron 36 (2006), 299ff.
- ^ Procopius, Perang, II.20.17–19
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 109–110
- ^ Procopius, Perang, II.21.30–32
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 110
- ^ Corripus, Johannidos, I.68–98
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 111
- ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113
- ^ Procopius, Perang, 28.7–11
- ^ Greatrex (2005), 489
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113
- ^ Procopius, Perang, 28.7–11
- ^ Evans, Justinian (527–565 AD); Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 204–207
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 209
- ^ Farrokh (2007), 236
- ^ Greatrex (2005), 489
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 211
- ^ Menander Protector, History, frag. 6.1. Menurut Greatrex (2005), 489, bagi banyak orang Romawi kesepakatan ini "tampak berbahaya dan menunjukkan kelehaman".
- ^ Evans, Justinian (527–565 AD)
- ^ John of Epiphania, History, 2 AncientSites.com gives an additional reason for the outbreak of the war: "[The Medians'] contentiousness increased even further ... when Justin did not deem to pay the Medians the five hundred pounds of gold each year previously agreed to under the peace treaties and let the Roman State remain forever a tributary of the Persians." See also, Greatrex (2005), 503–504
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 222
- ^ The great bastion of the Roman frontier was in Persian hands for the first time (Whitby [2000], 92–94).
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 152
- ^ Louth (2005), 113
- ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 246.11–27
- ^ Whitby (2000), 92–94
- ^ a b Theophylact, History, I, 9.4 (PDF)
Treadgold (1997), 224 - ^ Whitby (2000), 95
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 224
- ^ Whitby (2000), 95–96
- ^ Soward, Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians (PDF); Treadgold (1997), 225;
- ^ Whitby (2000), 96
- ^ Soward, Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians (PDF)
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 226
- ^ Whitby (2000), 96
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 168-169
- ^ Theophylact, V, Sejarah, I, 3.11 (PDF) and 15.1 (PDF)
- ^ Louth (2005), 115
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 231–232
- ^ Foss (1975), 722
- ^ Theophanes, Kronik, 290–293
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 183–184
- ^ Theophanes, Kronik, 292–293
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 185–186
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 186–187
- ^ Haldon (1997), 41; Speck (1984), 178.
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 188–189
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 189–190
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 190–193, 196
- ^ The mint of Nicomedia ceased operating in 613, and Rhodes fell to the invaders in 622–623 (Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 193–197).
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 85
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 196
- ^ Theophanes, Kronik, 303–304, 307
- ^ Cameron (1979), 23; Grabar (1984), 37
- ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 304.25–306.7
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199
- ^ Theophanes, Kronik, 306–308
- ^ reatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199–202
- ^ Theophanes, Kronik, 308–31
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 202–205
- ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 316
- ^ Cameron (1979), 5–6, 20–22
- ^ Theophanes, Kronik, 315–316
- ^ Farrokh–McBride (2005), 56
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 209–212
- ^ Theophanes, Kronik, 317–327
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227
- ^ Haldon (1997), 46
- ^ Baynes (1912), passim
- ^ Speck (1984), 178
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 9: "[Heraclius'] victories in the field over the following years and its political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old Zoroastrian rival."
- ^ Haldon (1997), 43–45, 66, 71, 114–15
- ^ Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of miaphysites may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion (Haldon [1997], 49–50).
- ^ Foss (1975), 746–47
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), xv
- ^ Liska (1998), 170
- ^ Haldon (1997), 49–50
- ^ Haldon (1997), 61–62
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 9
- ^ Rawlinson (2007), 199: "The Parthian military system had not the elasticity of the Romans ... However loose and seemingly flexible, it was rigid in its uniformity; it never altered; it remained under the thirtieth Arsaces such as it had been under the first, improved in details perhaps, but essentially the same system."
- ^ Michael Whitby (2000), 310, "the eastern armies preserved the Roman military reputation through to the end of the 6th century by capitalizing on available resources and showing a capacity to adapt to a variety of challenges".
- ^ a b Wheeler (2007), 259
- ^ a b Frye (2005), 473
- ^ Greatrex (2005), 478
- ^ Frye (2005), 472
- ^ Cornuelle, An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military; Sidnell (2006), 273
- ^ According to Reno E. Gabba, the Roman army was reorganized over time after the impact of the Battle of Carrhae (Gabba [1966], 51–73).
- ^ Vegetius, III, Epitoma Rei Militaris, 26
- ^ Verbruggen–Willard–Southern (1997), 4–5
- ^ Campbell–Hook (2005), 57–59
- ^ Gabba (1966), 51–73
- ^ Shahîd (1984), 24–25
- ^ Wagstaff (1985), 123–125
- ^ Frye (1993), 139
- ^ Levi (1994), 192
- ^ a b Frye (1993), 139
- ^ Excavations In Iran Unravel Mystery Of "Red Snake", Science Daily
- ^ Levi (1994), 192
- ^ Rekavandi–Sauer–Wilkinson–Nokandeh, The Enigma of the Red Snake
- ^ Brazier (2001), 42
- ^ Kassios Dio, Sejarah Romawi, LXXV, 3.2–3
- ^ Garnsey–Saller (1987), 8
- ^ Greatrex (2005), 477–478
- ^ Barnes (1985), 126
- ^ Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History, II, 15
- ^ McDonough (2006), 73
- ^ Haldon (1999), 20
- ^ Isaak (1998), 441
- ^ Dignas–Winter (2007), 1–3(PDF)
- ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 5
- ^ Potter (2004), 232–233
- ^ Frye (2005), 461–463
- ^ Shahbazi, Historiography
- ^ Shahbazi, Historiography
- ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 7
- ^ Boyd (1999), 160
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 42–43
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